Chapter :01 : Part of Speech: FOR TET & CTET

 The parts of speech explain how a word is used in a sentence.

There are eight main parts of speech (also known as word classes): nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections.

Most parts of speech can be divided into sub-classes. Prepositions can be divided into prepositions of time, prepositions of place etc. Nouns can be divided into proper nouns, common nouns, concrete nouns etc.

It is important to know that a word can sometimes be in more than one part of speech. For example with the word increase.

Increase can be a verb e.g. Prices increased
and increase can also be a noun e.g. There was an increase in the number of followers.

The eight main parts of speech in English are:

NOUN - (Naming word)

A noun is the name of a person, place, thing or idea.

Examples of nouns: Daniel, London, table, dog, teacher, pen, city, happiness, hope

Example sentences: Steve lives in Sydney. Mary uses pen and paper to write letters.

Learn more about the different types of nouns.

PRONOUN - (Replaces a Noun)

A pronoun is used in place of a noun or noun phrase to avoid repetition.

Examples of pronouns: I, you, we, they, he, she, it, me, us, them, him, her, this, those

Example sentences: Mary is tired. She wants to sleep. I want her to dance with me.

ADJECTIVE - (Describing word)

An adjective describes, modifies or gives more information about a noun or pronoun.

Examples: big, happy, green, young, fun, crazy, three

Example sentences: The little girl had a pink hat.

VERB - (Action Word)

A verb shows an action or state of being. A verb shows what someone or something is doing.

Examples: go, speak, run, eat, play, live, walk, have, like, are, is

Example sentences: I like Woodward English. I study their charts and play their games.

ADVERB - (Describes a verb)

An adverb describes/modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb. It tells how, where, when, how often or to what extent. Many adverbs end in -LY

Examples: slowly, quietly, very, always, never, too, well, tomorrow, here

Example sentences: I am usually busy. Yesterday, I ate my lunch quickly.

PREPOSITION - (Shows relationship)

A preposition shows the relationship of a noun or pronoun to another word. They can indicate time, place, or relationship.

Examples: at, on, in, from, with, near, between, about, under

Example sentences: I left my keys on the table for you.

CONJUNCTION - (Joining word)

A conjunction joins two words, ideas, phrases or clauses together in a sentence and shows how they are connected.

Examples: and, or, but, because, so, yet, unless, since, if.

Example sentences: I was hot and exhausted but I still finished the marathon.

INTERJECTION - (Expressive word)

An interjection is a word or phrase that expresses a strong feeling or emotion. It is a short exclamation.

Examples: Ouch! Wow! Great! Help! Oh! Hey! Hi!

Example sentences: Wow! I passed my English test. Great! – Ouch! That hurt.

Summary Chart

Part of Speech Overview

In the English language, words can be considered as the smallest elements that have distinctive meanings. Based on their use and functions, words are categorized into several types or parts of speech. This article will offer definitions and examples for the 8 major parts of speech in English grammar:  noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, adjective, conjunction, preposition, and interjection.

1. Noun

This part of a speech refers to words that are used to name persons, things, animals, places, ideas, or events. Nouns are the simplest among the 8 parts of speech, which is why they are the first ones taught to students in primary school.

Examples:

• Tom Hanks is very versatile.
• The italicized noun refers to a name of a person.

• Dogs can be extremely cute.
• In this example, the italicized word is considered a noun because it names an animal.

• It is my birthday.
• The word “birthday” is a noun which refers to an event.

There are different types of nouns namely:

• Proper– proper nouns always start with a capital letter and refers to specific names of persons, places, or things.
• Examples: Volkswagen Beetle, Shakey’s Pizza, Game of Thrones

• Common– common nouns are the opposite of proper nouns. These are just generic names of persons, things, or places.
• Examples: car, pizza parlor, TV series

• Concrete– this kind refers to nouns which you can perceive through your five senses.
• Examples: folder, sand, board

• Abstract- unlike concrete nouns, abstract nouns are those which you can’t perceive through your five senses.
• Examples: happiness, grudge, bravery

• Count– it refers to anything that is countable, and has a singular and plural form.
• Examples:  kitten, video, ball

• Mass– this is the opposite of count nouns. Mass nouns are also called non-countable nouns, and they need to have “counters” to quantify them.
• Examples of Counters: kilo, cup, meter
• Examples of Mass Nouns: rice, flour, garter

• Collective– refers to a group of persons, animals, or things.
• Example: faculty (group of teachers), class (group of students), pride (group of lions)

This great list of nouns can help you explore more nouns.

2. Pronoun

A pronoun is a part of a speech which functions as a replacement for a noun. Some examples of pronouns are: I, it, he, she, mine, his, hers, we, they, theirs, and ours.

Sample Sentences:

• Janice is a very stubborn child. She just stared at me and when I told her to stop.
• The largest slice is mine.
• We are number one.

The italicized words in the sentences above are the pronouns in the sentence.

3.  Adjective

This part of  a speech is used to describe a noun or a pronoun. Adjectives can specify the quality, the size, and the number of nouns or pronouns.

Use this link to get a list of adjectives.

Sample Sentences:

• The carvings are intricate.
• The italicized word describes the appearance of the noun “carvings.”

• I have two hamsters.
• The italicized word “two,” is an adjective which describes the number of the noun “hamsters.”

• Wow! That doughnut is huge!
• The italicized word is an adjective which describes the size of the noun “doughnut.”

4. Verb

This is the most important part of a speech, for without a verb, a sentence would not exist. Simply put, this is a word that shows an action (physical or mental) or state of being of the subject in a sentence.

Examples of “State of Being Verbs” : am, is, was, are, and were

Sample Sentences:

• As usual, the Stormtroopers missed their shot.
• The italicized word expresses the action of the subject “Stormtroopers.”

• They are always prepared in emergencies.
• The verb “are” refers to the state of being of the pronoun “they,” which is the subject in the sentence.

5. Adverb

Just like adjectives, adverbs are also used to describe words, but the difference is that adverbs describe adjectives, verbs, or another adverb.

The different types of adverbs are:

• Adverb of Manner– this refers to how something happens or how an action is done.
• Example: Annie danced gracefully.
• The word “gracefully” tells how Annie danced.

• Adverb of Time- this states “when” something happens or “when” it is done.
• Example: She came yesterday.
• The italicized word tells when she “came.”

• Adverb of Place– this tells something about “where” something happens or ”where” something is done.
• Example:  Of course, I looked everywhere!
• The adverb “everywhere” tells where I “looked.”

• Adverb of Degree– this states the intensity or the degree to which a specific thing happens or is done.
• Example: The child is very talented.
• The italicized adverb answers the question, “To what degree is the child talented?”

6. Preposition

This part of a speech basically refers to words that specify location or a location in time.

Examples of Prepositions: above, below, throughout, outside, before, near, and since

Sample Sentences:

• Micah is hiding under the bed.
• The italicized preposition introduces the prepositional phrase “under the bed,” and tells where Micah is hiding.

• During the game, the audience never stopped cheering for their team.
• The italicized preposition introduces the prepositional phrase “during the game,” and tells when the audience cheered.

7. Conjunction

The conjunction is a part of a speech which joins words, phrases, or clauses together.

Examples of Conjunctions:  and, yet, but, for, nor, or, and so

Sample Sentences:

• This cup of tea is delicious and very soothing.
• Kiyoko has to start all over again because she didn’t follow the professor’s instructions.
• Homer always wanted to join the play, but he didn’t have the guts to audition.

The italicized words in the sentences above are some examples of conjunctions.

8. Interjection

This part of a speech refers to words which express emotions. Since interjections are commonly used to convey strong emotions, they are usually followed by an exclamation point.

Examples of Interjections:

Sample Sentences:

• Ouch! That must have hurt.
• Hurray, we won!
• Hey! I said enough!

The bold words attached to the main sentences above are some examples of interjections.

Final Thoughts

You must familiarize yourself with the different parts of speech discussed in this article because they are among the most fundamental concepts that you will encounter throughout your study of grammar. An in-depth knowledge of this topic will not only make you a better writer, but an effective communicator as well.

Nouns

What is a Noun?

The simplest definition of a noun is a thing and nouns are the basic building blocks of sentences. These things can represent a person, animal, place, idea, emotion – almost any thing that you can think of. Dog, Sam, love, phone, Chicago, courage and spaceship are all nouns. The more nouns you know in a language, the better you will be able to communicate your ideas. Here, we’ll take a closer look at what makes a noun a noun, and we’ll provide some examples of how nouns are used.

Noun examples: respect, faith, apple, seashore, peanut, motorcycle

Noun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

1. The boy and girl were holding hands as they crossed the bridge on the way to town.
2. I love watching my cat play with the pink yarn.
3. It is raining! Everyone, grab your umbrella and rain hat and watch out for the puddles!

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Categories of Nouns

There are several categories of nouns, and there can be an overlap across the categories. For example, there are common and proper nouns, and concrete and abstract nouns, yet some nouns are both concrete and common, or concrete and proper. It will become clear as you read on.

 Common nouns are the words that refer to most general things: country, evening, laughter, puppy, umbrella

Common noun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

• Cathy loves the weekends in the country.
• We enjoy swimming after breakfast.
• The cup fell and broke.

Proper nouns are the name that identifies someone or something, a person or a place. Proper nouns are capitalized. John is a proper noun, since the word John represents a particular, single example of a thing, John.

Proper noun examples: Mary, Jimmy, Aunt Audrey, Honda, Philadelphia

Proper noun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

• Emily loved spending time with her Aunt Nancy in Paris.
• Buick and Jeep are two important carmakers.
• We visited Lake Erie, which separates the United States and Canada.

Concrete nouns represent a thing that is real and tangible: pig, person, rock, smell, air, soup, Larry are all concrete nouns.

Concrete noun examples: cup, computer, diamond, rollercoaster, shampoo, Debby

Concrete noun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

• The person threw the rock across the yard.
• My dog, Oreo, jumped in the air and caught the ball!
• Can you smell the soup, John?

An abstract noun represents a thing that is more like a concept or idea: love, integrity, democracy, friendship, beauty, knowledge are examples of abstract nouns.

Abstract noun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

• Love and friendship are equally important.
• Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.
• Your mind can know a million things.

Nouns can also be categorized as countable or uncountable.

A countable noun is a thing can be numbered or counted: airplane, sock, bowl, noodle, teacher, as in two airplanes, three socks, 1000 noodles.

Countable noun examples: peach, horse, shirt, telescope

Countable noun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

• There are five dogs in the street.
• I bought three tons of coal.
• Margaret has six pairs of blue sandals.

Uncountable nouns can have a quantity or amount but cannot be actually counted: water, music, clothes, understanding. In the second example above, tons is a countable noun, but coal is not. Coal is referred to as an uncountable noun.

Uncountable noun examples: hate, confidence, attractiveness, wisdom

Uncountable noun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

• Love is in the air.
• The four elements are air, earth, fire and water.
• Her humor knows no bounds.

Collective nouns refer to a group of people or things: audience, team, bunch, family, class. When speaking of collective nouns, Americans consider them as singular, using singular verbs with them, such as the group dances happily. When speaking British English, both singular verbs and plural verbs might be used, as in the group dance crazily before the Queen.

Collective noun examples: government, jury, team, bunch, school, class, and room (the people in the room or building)

Collective noun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

• The team threw confetti when it was over.
• Steve buys the band some sandwiches.
• Meredith told the class she was getting married.

As mentioned above, when we talk of categories of nouns, some nouns can be described as being in more than one category. Some nouns are concrete and countable, for example, such as raindrops and wedding rings, while some are proper and uncountable, such as the Atlantic Ocean and Alaska.

Forms of Nouns

The same noun can appear in different forms, depending on how it is used.

A countable noun can be singular or plural. Most nouns in English form the plural by adding -s or -es to the noun, although there are some exceptions:

• One dog, two dogs, red dog, blue dog.
• I missed not just one bus today, but two buses.
• New York City is one of the grandest cities in the world.

Uncountable nouns and proper nouns are always considered to be singular:

• The air in the countryside and in the city is clean and fresh (not the airs).
• All knowledge is a good thing (not knowledges).
• Florida has mostly warm weather in the winter.

Nouns can also indicate ownership. This form of a noun is called a possessive noun, and is indicated by an apostrophe and the letter –s. It is equivalent to using the word of and the noun.

• The light’s color is red. (or: The color of the light is red.)
• The country’s flag has blue stripes. (or: The flag of the country has blue stripes.)
• The hunters’ guns were loaded. (or: The guns of the hunters were loaded.)

Note that when the noun already ends with -s, possession is indicated by adding only an apostrophe – hunters’ guns, not hunters’s guns.

A noun can be used as the subject of a sentence, or in another capacity as an object:

• John is nice. – John is the subject of the sentence
• I saw John – John is the simple (direct) object of the sentence.
• I gave John the phone. – John is the indirect object of the sentence.
• I gave the phone to John. – John is the object of the preposition to.

Additional Info About Nouns

Sometimes nouns are used as adjectives, which is referred to as a noun adjunct. In fact, English is amazingly flexible in that almost any noun can also be used as an adjective, though sometimes the use is considered comical or slangy:

• Ocean view – Ocean describes the type of view you would see outside your window.
• Jazz concert – Jazz is specifying what kind of concert is being played.
• Cheese omelet – It’s a certain type of omelet, eggs with cheese. Using a true adjective as in a cheesy omelet means any type of omelet (onion and peppers, mushroom) that has a lot of cheese.
• Dog tired – Really really tired – even though dogs aren’t known to be especially tired.
• Fear Factor – An example of using just any old word as a noun adjunct.

Pronouns

What is a Pronoun?

A pronoun is defined as a word or phrase that is used as a substitution for a noun or noun phrase, which is known as the pronoun’s antecedent. Pronouns are short words and can do everything that nouns can do and are one of the building blocks of a sentence. Common pronouns are he, she, you, me, I, we, us, this, them, that. A pronoun can act as a subject, direct object, indirect object, object of the preposition, and more and takes the place of any person, place, animal or thing. So coffee becomes it, Barbara becomes she, Jeremy becomes he, the team becomes they, and in a sentence, Barbara drinks a cup of coffee every afternoon could become she drinks a cup of it every afternoon, or even she drinks it every afternoon, where the it would substitute the cup of coffee, not just the coffee.

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Without pronouns, we’d constantly have to repeat nouns, and that would make our speech and writing repetitive, not to mention cumbersome. Without pronouns, Barbara drinks a cup of coffee every afternoon, she likes to have it before dinner would be Barbara drinks a cup of coffee every afternoon, Barbara likes to have the cup of coffee before dinner. Using pronouns helps the flow of sentences and makes them more interesting

• He
• It
• You
• I
• They
• We
• Who
• Him
• Them
• Whoever
• Anyone
• Something
• Nobody

Pronoun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

1. Billy, Caren, and I were playing poker with friends -> We were playing poker with friends.
2. Ellie loves watching movies. -> She loves watching movies, especially if they are comedies.
3. Will Daniel be going to the circus with Sarah? -> Will he be going there with her?

As mentioned, pronouns are usually used to replace nouns, however they can also stand in for certain adverbs, adjectives, and other pronouns. Almost anytime you refer to a person, animal, place or thing, you can use pronouns to add interest and make your speech or writing flow better.

In nearly all cases, a pronoun must follow an expression called an antecedent. This basically means that a pronoun can only really be understood in the context of prior information about the noun. For example, if we use the pronoun she in a sentence, we will only be able to understand it if we know who she is, thus an antecedent, perhaps giving the person’s name, is usually supplied first. In the example above Barbara drinks a cup of coffee every afternoon, if we had never mentioned Barbara or what she drinks, it would be unclear if we said, She drinks it every afternoon. Your reader would be confused and wonder who she is and what does she drink, wine, water, lemonade?

Once Barbara has been mentioned, we would use the pronouns she and her later in the writing in order to stop repeating the proper noun Barbara and possessive proper noun Barbara’s.
Barbara went to the restaurant for dinner with her (Barbara’s) friends. She (Barbara) was very hungry, but her (Barbara’s) friends would not stop chatting. Eventually, Barbara decided to take matters into her (Barbara’s) own hands and she (Barbara) demanded that they (Barbara’s friends) stop talking.

Imagine how that sentence would read if it kept repeating Barbara and Barbara’s. Pronouns have acted to make the writing tighter and, arguably, much more elegant. This is just a basic example of the use of pronouns, they act in many ways to help make speech and writing more lucid and dynamic.

Types of Pronouns

Pronouns can be divided into numerous categories including:

• Indefinite pronouns – those referring to one or more unspecified objects, beings, or places, such as someone, anybody, nothing. Notice in the examples below that there is no set position for where an indefinite pronoun will appear in a sentence.
  Indefinite pronoun examples:
  1. Anyone
  2. Somebody
  3. Whichever
  4. Whoever
  5. Other
  6. Something
  7. Nobody

  Indefinite pronoun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

  • Would anyone like a coffee?
  • Take whatever you like. Jamie took one cookie and Ben took the other.
  • Whoever owns this is in big trouble! I want someone to move this now.

  Indefinite pronouns can also be used to create sentences that are almost abstract. Examples could include: this, all, such and something.

  • All was not lost.
  • Such is life.
  • Something tells me this won’t end well.
• Personal pronouns – those associated with a certain person, thing, or group; all except you have distinct forms that indicate singular or plural number. Personal pronouns are always specific and are often used to replace a proper noun (someone’s name) or a collective group of people or things. Personal pronouns have two main groups, one referring to the subject of the sentence and one to the object.
  The first is used to replace the subject of the sentence: I, you, he, she, it, we, you and they. Notice that you is repeated as you can be singular, addressing one person, or plural, addressing a group of people.

  Personal pronoun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

  • Jack and David are friends. They play basketball together.
  • I have more money than he
  • We will be late if you don’t hurry up.

  The second group of pronouns replaces the object of the sentence: me, you, him, her, it, us, you, them. Consider the sentence again:

  We will be late if you don’t hurry up.

  In the above example, we is the subject of the sentence, but you is the object. Other examples of pronouns replacing the object:

  • Peter sang the song to me.
  • Missing the train will cause us to be late.

  She packed them tightly in the suitcase.

• Reflexive pronouns – those preceded by the adverb, adjective, pronoun, or noun to which they refer, and ending in –self or –selves. Reflexive pronouns are used to refer back to the subject or clause of a sentence. The list of reflexive pronouns includes: Myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.
  Reflexive pronoun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
  • Count yourselves
  • Annie only had herself to blame.

  Peter and Paul had baked themselves cakes.

• Demonstrative pronouns – those used to point to something specific within a sentence. There are only four demonstrative pronouns – this, that, these, those – but the usage can be a bit tricky at times. This and that are singular, whereas these and those are plural. As you may have noticed, there can be some crossover with indefinite pronouns when using this and that.
  Demonstrative pronoun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
  • I prefer this.
  • These are beautiful, but those belong to Danny.
  • Did you see that?

  While it can be confusing, this, that, these and those can sometimes be used as demonstrative adjectives. The difference between the two is that a demonstrative pronoun replaces the noun and a demonstrative adjective qualifies the noun.

  I prefer this photo. These flowers are beautiful, but those vases belong to Danny. Did you see that rainbow?

  It should be clear that this, that, these and those in the example above are not pronouns because they are being used to qualify the noun, but not replace it. A good trick for remembering the difference is that a demonstrative pronoun would still make sense if the word one or ones followed it in the sentence.

  I prefer this (one). These (ones) are beautiful. Did you see that (one)? Those (ones) belong to Danny.

• Possessive pronouns – those designating possession or ownership. Examples include: mine, its, hers, his, yours, ours, theirs, whose. Consider the example:
  • This cat is mine.

  Mine is indicating possession, that the cat belongs to me. Incidentally, this in the sentence is not a pronoun but demonstrative adjective as it qualifies the noun cat. You will find that possessive pronouns often follow phrases that contain demonstrative adjectives.

  Possessive pronoun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

  • Are these bananas yours?
  • This money is ours.

  Is the fault theirs or yours?

• Relative pronouns –those which refer to nouns mentioned previously, acting to introduce an adjective (relative) clause. They will usually appear after a noun to help clarify the sentence or give extra information. Examples include: who, which, that, whom, whose. Consider the following sentence:
  The man who stole the car went to jail. The relative pronoun who acts to refer back to the noun man. It acts to open a clause by identifying the man as not just any man, but the one who stole the car.Relative pronoun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
  • The table, which sits in the hallway, is used for correspondence.
  • The car that crashed into the wall was blue.
  • This is the woman, whose key you found.
• Interrogative pronouns –Those which introduce a question. Examples include: who, whom, whose, what, which. We can usually identify an interrogative pronoun by the fact that they often appear at the beginning of a question.
  Interrogative pronoun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
  • Who will come to the party?
  • Which do you prefer?
  • What do you need?
  • Whose clothes are on the floor?
  • Whom did you tell?

  Whom and who are often confused, and even native speakers will use them incorrectly. Who will replace the subject of a sentence, whereas whom will replace the direct or indirect object. A good tip for deciding which to use is that you can replace who in the sentence with a personal pronoun and it will still make sense. Who will come to the party? I will come to the party. The same system would not work for Whom did you tell? I did you tell.

• Reciprocal pronouns –Those expressing mutual actions or relationship; i.e. one another.
  There are just two reciprocal pronouns in English: one another and each other. They are mainly used to stop unnecessary repetition in a sentence, but also to reinforce the idea that collective and reciprocal actions are happening to more than one person or thing.John and Mary gave each other gifts. Using each other allows us the sentence to be more efficient than: John gave Mary a gift and Mary gave a gift to John. The countries worked with one another on national security. In this example, one another works to suggest that the action of working is being reciprocated back and forth by more than one country.

  Reciprocal pronoun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

  • The boxers punched each other

  The couple love one another deeply

• Intensive pronouns – those ending in –self or –selves and that serve to emphasize their antecedents. These are almost identical to reflexive pronouns, but rather than just referring back to the subject of the sentence they work to reinforce the action. In many cases, the sentence would still make sense without the intensive pronoun.
  Intensive pronoun examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.
  • I will do it myself.
  • We made this pie ourselves.
  • A nation speaks for itself through elections.

  Notice how the intensive pronoun is working to emphasize the statement. The sentence would still technically be correct without the intensive pronoun, but it adds some important context to its meaning.

Pronoun Rules

There are a few important rules for using pronouns. As you read through these rules and the examples in the next section, notice how the pronoun rules are followed. Soon you’ll see that pronouns are easy to work with.

• Subject pronouns may be used to begin sentences. For example: We did a great job.
• Subject pronouns may also be used to rename the subject. For example: It was she who decided we should go to Hawaii.
• Indefinite pronouns don’t have antecedents. They are capable of standing on their own. For example: No one likes the sound of fingernails on a chalkboard.
• Object pronouns are used as direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of prepositions. These include: you, me, him, her, us, them, and it. For example: David talked to her about the mistake.
• Possessive pronouns show ownership. They do not need apostrophes. For example: The cat washed its

Examples of Pronouns

In the following examples, the pronouns are italicized.

1. We are going on vacation.
2. Don’t tell me that you can’t go with us.
3. Anybody who says it won’t be fun has no clue what they are talking about.
4. These are terribly steep stairs.
5. We ran into each other at the mall.
6. I’m not sure which is worse: rain or snow.
7. It is one of the nicest Italian restaurants in town.
8. Richard stared at himself in the mirror.
9. The laundry isn’t going to do itself.
10. Someone spilled orange juice all over the countertop!

Pronoun Exercises

The following exercises will help you gain greater understanding about how pronouns work. Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.

1. This is __________ speaking.
   1. John
   2. He
   3. He john
   4. Am
2. Greg is as smart as __________ is.
   1. I
   2. me
   3. she
   4. we
3. The dog chewed on __________ favorite toy.
   1. it’s
   2. it is
   3. its’
   4. its
4. It could have been __________ .
   1. Jerry
   2. anyone
   3. better
   4. more difficult
5. Terry is taller than __________ am.
   1. I
   2. me
   3. she
   4. we

Answers

1. B. This is he speaking.
2. C. Greg is as smart as she is.
3. D. The dog chewed on its favorite toy.
4. B. It could have been anyone.
5. A. Terry is taller than I am.

List of Pronouns

As you read through this list of pronouns, remember that each one of these pronouns is a word that can be used to take the place of a noun. Think about ways to use the pronouns on this list in sentences, as this will increase your understanding.

I

We

Me

Us

You

She

He

Her

Him

They

Them

It

That

Which

Who

Whom

Whose

Whichever

Whoever

Whomever

This

These

That

Those

Anybody

Anyone

Anything

Each

Either

Everyone

Everybody

Everything

Nobody

Neither

No one

Nothing

Somebody

One

Someone

Something

Few

Many

Both

Several

Any

All

Some

Most

None

Myself

Yourself

Ourselves

Yourselves

Herself

Himself

Themselves

Itself

Who

What

Which

Whose

Whom

 

Adjectives

Adjectives are words that describe nouns (or pronouns). "Old," "green," and "cheerful" are examples of adjectives. (It might be useful to think as adjectives as "describing words.")

This infographic shows where an adjective sits in relation to the noun it describes:

Got it? Take a quick test.

Examples of Adjectives

Here are some examples of adjectives. (In each example, the adjective is highlighted.)

Adjective Before the Noun

An adjective usually comes directly before the noun it describes (or "modifies," as grammarians say).

• old man
• green coat
• cheerful one
("One" is a pronoun. Don't forget that adjectives modify pronouns too.)

When adjectives are used like this, they're called attributive adjectives.

Adjective After the Noun

An adjective can come after the noun.

• Jack was old.
• It looks green.
• He seems cheerful.

In the three examples above, the adjectives follow linking verbs ("was," "looks," and "seems") to describe the noun or pronoun. (When adjectives are used like this, they're called predicative adjectives.)

Adjective Immediately After the Noun

Sometimes, an adjective comes immediately after a noun.

• the Princess Royal
• time immemorial
• body beautiful
• the best seats available
• the worst manners imaginable

When adjectives are used like this, they're called postpositive adjectives. Postpositive adjectives are more common with pronouns.

• someone interesting
• those present
• something evil

A Video Summary

Here is a video summarizing this lesson on adjectives.

Got it? Take a quick test.

More about Adjectives

Descriptive Adjectives and Determiners

In traditional grammar, words like "his," "this," "many," and even "a" and "the" are classified as adjectives. However, in contemporary grammar, such words are classified as determiners (see below). Be aware that, for many people, the word adjective refers only to descriptive adjectives. A descriptive adjective will usually fit into one of the following categories:

Category	Example
Appearance	attractive, burly, clean, dusty
Colour	azure, blue, cyan, dark
Condition	absent, broken, careful, dead
Personality	annoying, brave, complex, dizzy
Quantity	ample, bountiful, countless, deficient
Sense	aromatic, bitter, cold, deafening
Size and Shape	angular, broad, circular, deep
Time	ancient, brief, concurrent, daily

The rise of determiners means that we now have nine parts of speech not the traditional eight.

Traditional Grammar	Contemporary Grammar
Adjectives Adverbs Conjunctions Interjections Nouns Prepositions Pronouns Verbs	Adjectives Adverbs Conjunctions Determiners Interjections Nouns Prepositions Pronouns Verbs

Read more about determiners.

The Difference between Adjectives and Determiners

For centuries, the term "adjective" has been used for a word type now called a determiner. For example, the words "his," "this," "many" are classified as possessive adjective, demonstrative adjective, and indefinite adjective respectively. In contemporary grammar, however, these are classified as determiners, specifically possessive determiner, demonstrative determiner, and indefinite determiner. Of interest, such determiners are still classified as adjectives by most people, but this situation is changing quickly [evidence].)

Determiners indicate qualities such as the following:

• Possession (e.g., "my dog")
• Specificity (e.g., "that dog")
• Quantity (e.g., "one dog")
• Definiteness (e.g., "a dog")

The Four Main Differences between Adjectives and Determiners

Regardless of whether you use the word "determiner" or "adjective" for such words, this much is true: determiners are not like descriptive adjectives. Here are the four main differences between determiners and normal adjectives:

(Difference 1) A determiner cannot have a comparative form.

• Descriptive adjective: pretty > prettier
("Prettier" is the comparative form of "pretty.")
• Determiner: that > [nothing fits here]
(There is no comparative form.)

(Difference 2) A determiner often cannot be removed from the sentence.

• Descriptive adjectives removed: The young boy stole a silver watch. 
(This is grammatically sound with the normal adjectives removed.)
• Determiner: The Young boy stole a silver watch. 
(The sentence is flawed with the determiners removed.)

(Difference 3) A determiner often refers back to something (i.e., it's like a pronoun).

• Determiner: Release those prisoners immediately.
(The determiner "those" refers back to something previously mentioned. In other words, it has an antecedent (the thing it refers to). Descriptive adjectives do not have an antecedent.)

(Difference 4) A determiner cannot be used as a subject complement.

• Descriptive adjective: She is intelligent.
(The descriptive adjective "intelligent" can be used after a linking verb (here, "is") and function as a subject complement.)
• Determiner: She is [nothing fits here].
(You can't use a determiner as a subject complement. NB: If you think you've found a determiner that fits, then you've found a pronoun not a determiner.)

Here is a brief description of the main determiners. (There is a separate page on each one.)

Type	Examples
Possessive Determiners. The possessive determiners (called "possessive adjectives" in traditional grammar) are "my," "your," "his," "her," "its," "our," "their," and "whose." A possessive determiner sits before a noun (or a pronoun) to show who (or what) owns it.	When a man opens a car door for his wife, it's either a new car or a new wife. (Prince Philip) The only time a wife listens to her husband is when he's asleep. (Cartoonist Chuck Jones) Read more about possessive determiners/adjectives.
Demonstrative Determiners. The demonstrative determiners (called "demonstrative adjectives" in traditional grammar) are "this," "that," "these," and "those." A demonstrative determiner makes a noun (or a pronoun) more specific by relating it to something previously mentioned or something being demonstrated.	That man's silence is wonderful to listen to. (Novelist Thomas Hardy) Maybe this world is another planet's hell. (Writer Aldous Huxley) Read more about demonstrative determiners/adjectives.
Articles. The articles are the words "a," "an," and "the." They are used to define whether something is specific or unspecific.	The poets are only the interpreters of the gods. (Philosopher Socrates) I'm an optimist – but an optimist who carries a raincoat. (Prime Minister Harold Wilson) Read more about the articles.
Numbers (or Cardinal Numbers). The cardinal numbers are "one," "two," "three," etc. (as opposed by "first," "second," "third," etc., which are known as ordinal numbers). Cardinal numbers are used to specify quantity. They are part of the group of determiners known as "quantifiers."	If two wrongs don't make a right, try three wrongs. (Canadian educator Laurence Peter) One loyal friend is worth ten thousand relatives. (Greek Tragedian Euripides) Read more about "quantifiers" on the determiners page.
Indefinite Determiners. The most common indefinite determiners (called "indefinite adjectives" in traditional grammar) are "no," "any," "many," "few," "several," and "some." Indefinite determiners modify nouns in a non-specific way usually relating to quantity. Like numbers, they are part of the group of determiners known as "quantifiers."	If you live to be one hundred, you've got it made. Very few people die past that age. (Comedian George Burns) If this is coffee, please bring me some tea; but if this is tea, please bring me some coffee. (US President Abraham Lincoln) Read more about indefinite determiners/adjectives.
Interrogative Determiners. The most common interrogative determiners (called "interrogative adjectives" in traditional grammar) are "which," "what," and "whose." They are used to ask questions.	If you decide that you're indecisive, which one are you? What hair colour do they put on bald person's driving licence? Read more about interrogative determiners/adjectives.

Nouns Used as Adjectives

Many words that are usually nouns can function as adjectives. For example:

• autumn colours
• boat race
• computer shop
• Devon cream
• electricity board
• fruit fly

Here are some real-life examples:

• Not all face masks are created equal. (Entrepreneur Hannah Bronfman)
• You cannot make a revolution with silk gloves. (Premier Joseph Stalin)

When used like adjectives, nouns are known as attributive nouns.

Participles Used as Adjectives

Formed from a verb, a participle is a word that can be used as an adjective. There are two types of participle:

• The present participle (ending -"ing")
• The past participle (usually ending -"ed," -"d," -"t," -"en," or -"n")

Here are some examples of participles as verbs:

• The most exciting phrase to hear in science, the one that heralds new discoveries, is not "Eureka!" but "That's funny." (Writer Isaac Asimov)
• Always be wary of any helpful item that weighs less than its operating manual. (Author Terry Pratchett)
• While the spoken word can travel faster, you can't take it home in your hand. Only the written word can be absorbed wholly at the convenience of the reader. (Educator Kingman Brewster)
• We all have friends and loved ones who say 60 is the new 30. No, it's the new 60. (Fashion model Iman)

A participle is classified as a verbal (a verb form that functions as a noun or an adjective).

Infinitives Used as Adjectives

An infinitive verb (e.g., "to run," "to jump") can also function as an adjective.

• No human creature can give orders to love. (French novelist George Sand) (Here, the infinitive "to love" describes the noun "orders.")
• Progress is man's ability to complicate simplicity. (Norwegian adventurer Thor Heyerdahl)
(An infinitive will often head its own phrase. Here, the infinitive phrase "to complicate simplicity" describes the noun "ability.")

Read more about infinitive verbs.

The Order of Adjectives

When two or more adjectives are strung together, they should be ordered according to the following list:

Placement	Type of Adjective	Examples
1	Article, Demonstrative Determiner, or Possessive Determiner	a, an, the this, that, those, these my, your, his, our
2	Quantity	one, three, ninety-nine
3	Opinion or Observation	beautiful, clever, witty, well-mannered
4	Size	big, medium-sized, small
5	Physical Quality	thin, lumpy, cluttered
6	Shape	square, round, long
7	Age	young, middle-aged, old
8	Colour/Color	red, blue, purple
9	Origin or Religion	French, Buddhist
10	Material	metal, leather, wooden
11	Type	L-shaped, two-sided, all-purpose
12	Purpose, or Attributive Noun	mixing, drinking, cooking service, football, head

Here is an example of a 14-adjective string (shaded) that is ordered correctly:

• my two lovely XL thin tubular new white Spanish metallic hinged correcting knee braces.

Regardless of how many adjectives are used (more than 3 is rare), the established order is still followed.

• That's a lovely mixing bowl
(1: Determiner 2: Opinion 3: Purpose)
• Who's nicked my two black, wooden spoons?
(1: Number 2: Colour 3: Material)
• Give your ticket to the Italian old waiter. 
(Age comes before origin. Therefore, "the old Italian waiter" would have been better.)

This list of precedence is not universally agreed, but all versions are similar. The area of most dispute is age and shape. The order can change for emphasis too. If there were two old waiters, one Italian and one Spanish, then the wrong example above would be correct, and the word "Italian" would be emphasized.

If you're a native English speaker, you are safe to ignore this list and let your instinct guide you. (Remarkably, you already know this, even if you don't know you know it.)

Using Commas with a List of Adjectives

In order to understand when to use commas between multiple adjectives, you must learn the difference between cumulative adjectives and coordinate adjectives.

With cumulative adjectives, specificity builds with each adjective, so you cannot separate cumulative adjectives with commas, and they must follow the order of precedence in the table above. Coordinate adjectives are different. They describe the noun independently, which means they can follow any order. Coordinate adjectives should be separated with commas or the word "and." Here are some examples of each type:

Cumulative adjectives:

• A bright green metal mixing bowl
(These are cumulative adjectives. Their order cannot be changed. They follow the precedent list. There are no commas.)

Coordinate adjectives:

• A green, lumpy bowl
• A lumpy, green bowl
(These are coordinate adjectives. As shown, their order can be changed. They should be separated with commas or the word "and.")

Show me an infographic

Read more about the order of adjectives and punctuating them.

Compound Adjectives

Not all adjectives are single words. Often, a single adjective will consist of two or more words. A single adjective with more than one word is called a compound adjective. For example:

• Happiness is having a large, loving, caring, close-knit family in another city. (Comedian George Burns)
• Be a good-looking corpse. Leave a good-looking tattoo. (Actor Ed Westwick)
• I like the busted-nose look. (Actor Peter Dinklage)

Compound adjectives are usually grouped with hyphens to show they are one adjective.

Show me an infographic

Read more about compound adjectives.

Adjective Phrases

In real-life sentences, adjectives are often accompanied by modifiers like adverbs (e.g., "very," "extremely") and prepositional phrases (e.g., "...with me," "...about the man"). In other words, an adjective (shown in bold) will often feature in an "adjective phrase" (shaded).

• My bankers are very happy with me. (The popstar formerly known as Prince)
(In this example, the adjective phrase describes "bankers.")
• The dragonfly is an exceptionally beautiful insect but a fierce carnivore.
(Here, the adjective phrase describes "insect.")

Here's a more formal definition:

Formal Definition for Adjective Phrase

An adjective phrase is a group of words headed by an adjective that describes a noun.

Show me an infographic

Read more about adjective phrases.

Adjective Clauses

The last thing to say about adjectives is that clauses can also function as adjectives. With an adjective clause, the clause is linked to the noun being described with a relative pronoun ("who," "whom," "whose," "that," or "which") or a relative adverb ("when," "where," or "why"). Like all clauses, it will have a subject and a verb.

• The people who make history are not the people who make it but the people who make it and then write about it. (Musician Julian Cope)
• I live in that solitude which is painful in youth but delicious in the years of maturity. (Physicist Albert Einstein)
(It can start getting complicated. In the adjective clause above, "painful in youth" and "delicious in the years of maturity" are adjective phrases.)

Here's a formal definition:

Formal Definition for Adjective Clause

An adjective clause is a multi-word adjective that includes a subject and a verb.

Show me an infographic

Read more about adjective clauses.

Why Should I Care about Adjectives?

This section covers a lot of adjective-associated terms, most of which have their own pages that highlight their quirks and issues. Below are five top-level points linked to adjectives.

(Point 1) Reduce your wordcount with the right adjective.

Try to avoid using words like "very" and "extremely" to modify adjectives. Pick better adjectives.

• very happy boy  > delighted boy 
• very angry  > livid 
• extremely posh hotel  > luxurious hotel 
• really serious look  > stern look 

The examples above are not wrong, but they are not succinct. The best writing is precise and concise.

(Point 2) Reduce your wordcount by removing adjectives.

Picking the right noun can eliminate the need for an adjective.

• whaling ship  > whaler 
• disorderly crowd  > mob 
• organized political dissenting group  > faction 

You can also reduce your wordcount by removing redundant adjectives.

• joint cooperation  > cooperation 
• necessary requirement  > requirement 
• handwritten manuscript  > manuscript 

The examples above are not wrong, but they are not succinct. The needless repetition of a single concept is known as tautology.

(Point 3) Avoid incomprehensible strings of "adjectives."

In business writing (especially with technical subjects), it is not unusual to encounter strings of attributive nouns. In each example below, the attributive-noun string is shaded.

• Factor in the service level agreement completion time.  (difficult to understand)
• Engineers will install the email retrieval process improvement software.  (difficult)
• He heads the network services provision team.  (difficult)
• The system needs a remote encryption setting reset.  (difficult)

Noun strings like these are difficult to follow. If you use one, you will almost certainly bring the reading flow of your readers to a screeching halt as they stop to unpick the meaning, or, worse, they'll zone out and skim over your words without understanding them.

To avoid such barely intelligible noun strings, do one or all of the following:

• Completely rearrange the sentence.
• Convert one of the nouns to a verb.
• Use hyphens to highlight the compound adjectives.

Here are the reworked sentences:

• Factor in the time to complete the service-level agreement.  (better)
• Engineers will install the software to improve the email-retrieval process.  (better)
• He heads the team providing network services.  (better)
• The system needs a reset of the remote-encryption setting.  (better)

(Point 4) Don't complete a linking verb with an adverb.

Most writers correctly use an adjective after a linking verb.

• It tastes nice. It smells nice. It seems nice. By Jove, it is nice. 

There's an issue though. For some, the linking verb "to feel" doesn't feel like a linking verb and, knowing that adverbs modify verbs, they use an adverb.

• I feel badly for letting you down. 
("Badly" is an adverb. It should be "bad.")

This error happens with other linking verbs too, but it's most common with "to feel."

• Bad service and food tasted awfully.  (Title of an online restaurant review by "Vanessa")
("Awfully" is an adverb. It should be "awful.")

(Point 5) Use postpositive adjectives for emphasis.

Putting an adjective immediately after a noun (i.e., using the adjective postpositively) is a technique for creating emphasis. (The deliberate changing of normal word order for emphasis is called anastrophe.)

• I suppressed my thoughts sinful and revengeful. 
• The sea stormy and perilous steadily proceeded. 

Verbs

What is a verb?

Verbs are the action words in a sentence that describe what the subject is doing. Along with nouns, verbs are the main part of a sentence or phrase, telling a story about what is taking place. In fact, without a verb, full thoughts can’t be properly conveyed, and even the simplest sentences, such as Maria sings, have one. Actually, a verb can be a sentence by itself, with the subject, in most case you, implied, such as, Sing! and Drive!

When learning the rules of grammar, schoolchildren are often taught that verbs are ‘doing’ words, meaning they signify the part of the sentence which explains the action taking place: He ran away, she eats chocolate cake on Sundays, the horses gallop across the fields. Ran, eats and gallop are the ‘action’ parts of those sentences, thus they are the verbs. However, it can be confusing because not all verbs are easily identifiable as action: I know your name, Jack thought about it, we considered several applications. These are non-action verbs, i.e. those that describe a state of being, emotion, possession, sense or opinion. Other non-action verbs include include love, agree, feel, am, and have.

How to Recognize a Verb

As you can see from the examples above, one clue to help you recognize a verb is its location compared to the subject. Verbs almost always come after a noun or pronoun. These nouns and pronouns are referred to as the subject.  The verb thought comes after the noun Jack, so the action Jack (subject) was taking was thinking (verb).

1. Mark eats his dinner quickly.
2. We went to the market.
3. You write neatly in your notebook.
4. They thought about all the prizes in the competition.

Here are some other ways to recognize verbs in a sentence:

1. If you’re not sure if a word is a verb, ask yourself, “Can I do ______?”

Can I think, wonder, walk, yawn? Yes, so these are verbs.

2. You can also ask, ”What is happening?”

In the sentence Mark eats his dinner quickly, what is happening? Eating is happening, so eating is the verb.

In the sentence They thought about all the prizes what is happening? Thought (thinking) is happening, so thought is the verb.

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Physical Verbs – Definition and Examples

Physical verbs are action verbs. They describe specific physical actions. If you can create a motion with your body or use a tool to complete an action, the word you use to describe it is most likely a physical verb. For example, Joe sat in his chair, the dog breathes quickly after she chases her ball, and should we vote in the election? Even when the action isn’t very active, if the action is done by the body or a tool, consider it a physical verb.

Physical Verb Examples

The physical verb examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

• Let’s run to the corner and back.
• I hear the train coming.
• Call me when you’re finished with class.

Mental Verbs – Definition and Examples

Mental verbs have meanings that are related to concepts such as discovering, understanding, thinking, or planning. In general, a mental verb refers to a cognitive state.

Mental Verb – Definition and Examples

Mental verbs have meanings that are related to concepts such as discovering, understanding, thinking, or planning. In general, a mental verb refers to a cognitive state.

Mental Verb Examples

The mental verb examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

• I know the answer.
• She recognized me from across the room.
• Do you believe everything people tell you?

States of Being Verbs – Definition and Examples

Also known as linking verbs, state of being verbs describe conditions or situations that exist. State of being verbs are inactive since no action is being performed. These verbs, forms of to be, such as am, is, are, are usually complemented by adjectives.

States of Being Verb Examples

The state of being verbs in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

• I am a student.
• We are circus performers.
• Please is quiet.

Types of Verbs

There are many types of verbs. In addition to the main categories of physical verbs, mental verbs, and state of being verbs, there are several other types of verbs. In fact, there are more than ten different types of verbs that are grouped together by function.

List of all Verb Types

Action Verbs

Action verbs express specific actions and are used any time you want to show action or discuss someone doing something.  It’s important to remember that the action does not have to be physical.

Action verb examples:

1. Run
2. Dance
3. Slide
4. Jump
5. Think
6. Do
7. Go
8. Stand
9. Smile
10. Listen.

The action verb examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

I run faster than David.

He does it well.

She thinks about poetry all day long

Transitive Verbs
Transitive verbs are action verbs that always express doable activities that relate or affect someone or something else. These other things are generally direct objects, nouns or pronouns that are affected by the verb, though some verbs can also take an indirect object, such as show, take, and make. In a sentence with a transitive verb, someone or something receives the action of the verb.

Transitive verb examples:

1. Love
2. Respect
3. Tolerate
4. Believe
5. Maintain.

The transitive verb examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

Gary ate the cookies.

The transitive verb is ate, Gary is the subject, because it is Gary who is doing the eating, and the cookies are the direct object, because it is the cookies that are being eaten. Other examples:

He kicked John.

John punches him.

They sold the tickets.

Examples of verbs used with both direct and indirect objects:

They sell him the tickets.

In this sentence, the tickets are the direct object while him is the indirect object.

Mary baked her mother a pie.

In this sentence, a pie is the direct object while her mother is the indirect object.

Intransitive Verbs

Intransitive verbs are action verbs that always express doable activities. They are different from transitive verbs because there is no direct object following an intransitive verb.

Intransitive verb examples:

1. Walk
2. Laugh
3. Cough
4. Play
5. Run

The intransitive verb examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

We travelled to London.

The intransitive verb is travelled, the subject is we, because we are doing the travelling, but London is not a direct object because London is not receiving the action of the verb. Other examples:

I sneeze in the morning.

He arrived with moments to spare.

Kathryn sat away from the others.

John eats before leaving for school.

The last example shows that the verb eats can be both transitive and intransitive depending on whether there is a direct object or not. If the sentence read: John eats the cookies before leaving for school, eats would be transitive as there is a direct object – the cookies.

By the way, some verbs can be both transitive and intransitive. These verbs include: start, leave, change, live, stop.

Auxiliary Verbs

Auxiliary verbs are also known as helping verbs and are used together with a main verb to show the verb’s tense or to form a question or negative. Common examples of auxiliary verbs include have, might, will. These auxiliary verbs give some context to the main verb, for example, letting the reader know when the action took place.

Auxiliary verb examples:

1. Would
2. Should
3. Do
4. Can
5. Did
6. Could
7. May

The auxiliary verb examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

I will go home after football practice.

The auxiliary verb will is telling us that the action of the main verb go is going to take place in the future – after football practice has ended. If the auxiliary verb will was removed, we get the sentence:

I go home after football practice.

In this case, there is no definite time frame for the action. The sentence suggests that going home after football practice is just something the subject I generally does. Other examples:

I may dance with you later.

We did consider Bryan’s feelings.

Jenny has spoken her final words.

In addition, we can sometimes use the auxiliary very before the pronoun to make a question:

Might you dance with me later?

Did we consider Bryan’s feelings?

Has Jenny spoken her final words?

Also, auxiliary verbs are used to help form negative statements, with the use of words like not and never. These will usually split the auxiliary and main verbs:

I may never dance with you again.

We did not consider Bryan’s feelings.

Jenny has not spoken her final words.

Stative Verbs

Stative verbs can be recognized because they express a state rather than an action. They typically relate to thoughts, emotions, relationships, senses, states of being, and measurements. The best way to think about stative verbs is that they are verbs that describe things that are not actions. The stative verbs are all expressing a state: A state of doubting, a state of believing, a state of wanting. These states of being are often temporary.

The stative verb examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

The doctor disagrees with your analysis.

Disagree is a stative verb here, as it describes the doctor’s state of being – disagreement.

John doubts the doctor’s opinion.

I believe the doctor is right.

She wanted another opinion.

Modal Verbs

Modal verbs are auxiliary verbs that are used to express abilities, possibilities, permissions, and obligations.

Modal verb examples:

1. Can
2. Must
3. May
4. Should
5. Would

The modal verb examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

He can shoot a three-point shot easily.

The auxiliary verb can is expressing an ability, suggesting that shooting a three-point shot is a skill the subject possesses.

Please note that in the case of should and must in the examples below, the modal verbs are expressing obligations, whereas would and may are expressing possibilities.

I should go home.

You must not delay.

Sally would not recommend the sushi.

David may be late.

Phrasal Verbs

Phrasal verbs aren’t single words; instead, they are combinations of words that are used together to take on a different meaning to that of the original verb. There are many examples of phrasal verbs, some of which have colloquial meanings, such as make up, hand in, bring up, point out, look forward to. Each time the verb takes the extra word(s) it takes on a new meaning. For example, make without the up expresses that something is being created, whereas with make up, the suggestion is that there are some lies or a fantastical element to the story and make out can mean either to grasp or see something difficult, or to kiss passionately.

Phrasal verb examples:

1. Run out
2. Go all out
3. Make out
4. Hand out
5. Bring out
6. Face up
7. Think through

The phrasal verb examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

Mary looked forward to her high school reunion.

The verb looked has taken on forward to to become a phrasal verb meaning to be excited about or eagerly await something.

He brought up the same points again and again.

Leroy handed in the wallet to the police.

I make up stories all the time.

She pointed out Donald’s mistake.

Irregular Verbs

Irregular verbs are those that don’t take on the regular spelling patterns of past simple and past participle verbs. Unfortunately, there are hundreds of irregular verbs in the English language. But don’t worry, while many are used often, the majority are not in common usage – or if they are, you will use them so often you will learn them quickly. Some of the most common irregular verbs include: say, make, go, take, come, know and see.

Irregular verb examples:

1. Eat
2. Think 
3. Bring
4. Hold
5. Bear
6. Buy
7. Lay
8. Catch
9. Drive
10. Paid
11. Feel
12. Redo

The irregular verb examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

I take my time when I go to the shops (present tense)

I took my time when I went to the shops (past tense)

Julie makes cake for the classroom (present tense)

Julie made a cake for the classroom (past tense)

She sees a silhouette shaped like a man in the window (present tense)

She saw a silhouette shaped like a man in the window (past tense)

We come to Aunt Jane’s for Thanksgiving each year (present tense)

We came to Aunt Jane’s for Thanksgiving each year (past tense).

You should also remember that auxiliary verbs ‘do’ and ‘have’ are also irregular verbs:

I do agree.

He does it often.

We have done our homework early.

They do their homework on Fridays.

I have a suspicion about Fran

Fran has a devious look.

We have no money left.

They have had a cough twice this winter.

What Is an Adverb?

An adverb is a part of speech that provides greater description to a verb, adjective, another adverb, a phrase, a clause, or a sentence.

A great way to pick out an adverb from a sentence is to look for the word ending in -ly. Although that's not universally true, it's a good place to start. Also, given their function, these fundamental elements of the English language are usually placed right before or after the verb in the sentence.

Adverbs are intensifiers and they can even come in the form of an adverb phrase. That just means you're looking at two or more words that act as an adverb. Let's take some time to dive (v.) deeply (adv.) into these popular modifiers.

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Defining an Adverb

What is an adverb? Well, first, it's important to understand the words adverbs work closely with, starting with verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.

• A verb is a word that expresses action or a state of being, i.e. jump, run, swim, ski, fish, talk.
• An adjective is a word that describes or clarifies a noun, i.e. pretty, happy, silly, sunny.
• A noun is a person, place or thing - in its simplest definition, i.e. girl, dog, mom.

Once you see a few examples, it'll be easy to see how adverbs function in a sentence. To simplify things, they explain the action.

Here are some examples of adverbs modifying verbs:

• He runs quickly.
• She walks slowly.
• He's happily chattering over there in the corner.

Adverbs can also modify adjectives or other adverbs. They provide more information about that other descriptive word. For example:

• He runs very quickly.

In this sentence, the adverb "very" is describing the adverb "quickly" ("very quickly" can be used as an adverb phrase).

• An incredibly pretty girl sat down next to me.

In this sentence, the adverb "incredibly" is describing the adjective "pretty."

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Identifying an Adverb

So, you can tell whether or not a word is an adverb by considering its function in the sentence. If it is describing a verb, adjective or other adverb it's an adverb.

Let's talk a little bit more about that -ly ending. We've compiled a list of 100 adverbs, and you'll see that many of them end in -ly. While that's a popular way to identify these modifiers, it's important to remember that isn't universally true. Don't forget adverbs such as "always", "often", "sometimes", "seldom", and "never." You've also got conjunctive adverbs such as "also," "besides," "meanwhile," and "likewise."

But, since the -ly form is very common let's keep the party going with a few more examples:

• The dog messily ate his dinner.
• I happily handed in my test.
• She quickly washed the dishes.

You can tell that these words are adverbs because they're describing the verbs in the sentence and they end in -ly.

Many high-frequency words are also adverbs. For example, "very," "much," "more," and "many" can all be adverbs.

• The puppy's behavior was very bad.
• The much smarter boy won the spelling bee.
• I so want to go to that concert tonight.

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Common Errors with Adverbs and Adjectives

Since adverbs and adjectives both modify other words, people often mistakenly use an adjective when they should use an adverb and vice versa. For example, the following sentence is incorrect:

• He behaved very bad on the field trip.

This is incorrect because "bad" is an adjective being used to describe "behaved," which is a verb. It should read:

• He behaved very badly on the field trip.

On the other hand, this would be correct:

• His behavior was bad on the field trip.

Here, the adjective "bad" is correctly describing the noun "behavior."

Good and Well

The words good and well are common triggers to the adverb vs. adjective confusion. It's important to remember this:

• Good is an adjective that modifies nouns.
  For example: That good boy (n.) just gave his little sister a hug.

• Well is an adverb that modifies verbs or even adjectives.
  For example: He listens (v.) well.

  That well educated (adj) woman went on to marry a celebrity.

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Adverb Practice

To practice what you've learned here, see if you can identify the adverb in each of the following sentences. (Answers at the bottom of the page.)

1. Jim will miss the wonderfully friendly people at work.
2. Joe walked slowly and steadily up the hill.
3. Becky ate quickly and then felt sick.
4. Jill is very late.
5. Clark wanted to see the great, big house.

Be a Cautious Adverb Advocate

We hope this information will help you rise above any common adjective/adverb mistakes and fully answer your questions about what is an adverb. You can now properly describe all of your actions from here on out.

There's just one thing left to note. Don't lean too hard on adverbs. Consider them more like the neighbor you see occasionally, not the one who constantly drops by unannounced. Writers like to cut out redundancies and keep their prose as tight as possible. If you feel like you're using too many -ly words to tell a story, you're probably right.

Having said that, feel free to gleefully brag to your friends about your new knowledge and refresh your memory at any time with these adverb quizzes.

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Answers to Adverb Practice:

1. Jim will miss the wonderfully friendly people at work.
   Wonderfully is the adverb, which modifies the adjective friendly, which modifies the noun people.
2. Joe walked slowly and steadily up the hill.
   Slowly and steadily are both adverbs, describing the way Joe walked.
3. Becky ate quickly and then felt sick.
   Quickly is the adverb here, modifying the verb ate.
4. Jill is very late.
   Very is an adverb modifying late, which is an adjective modifying Joe.

5. Clark wanted to see the great, big house.
   Great is an adverb modifying "big," which is an adjective modifying the noun "house."

Preposition

What is a preposition?

A preposition is a word used to link nouns, pronouns, or phrases to other words within a sentence. They act to connect the people, objects, time and locations of a sentence.  Prepositions are usually short words, and they are normally placed directly in front of nouns. In some cases, you’ll find prepositions in front of gerund verbs.

A nice way to think about prepositions is as the words that help glue a sentence together. They do this by expressing position and movement, possession, time and how an action is completed.

Indeed, several of the most frequently used words in all of English, such as of, to, for, with, on and at, are prepositions. Explaining prepositions can seem complicated, but they are a common part of language and most of us use them naturally without even thinking about it.

In fact, it’s interesting to note that prepositions are regarded as a ‘closed class’ of words in the English language. This means, unlike verbs and nouns, no new words are added to this group over time. In a way, it reflects their role as the functional workhorse of the sentence. They are unassuming and subtle, yet vitally important to the meaning of language.

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There are two very important rules to remember when using prepositions. Because they are somewhat vague, learning about prepositions and using them correctly in sentences takes practice. Because 1:1 translation is often impossible when dealing with prepositions, even the most advanced English students have some difficulty at first.

• The first rule is that to make sentences clear, specific prepositions are needed. For example, the preposition in means one thing and the preposition on cannot substitute for it in all cases. Some prepositions are interchangeable but not always. The correct preposition means one particular thing and using a different proposition will give the sentence a very different meaning. I want to see you in the house now, Bill! means something very different from I want to see you on the house now, Bill! In the house means Bill should go through the door, walk inside, and stand in the hall or living room. On the house means Bill would need to get a ladder and climb to the roof where he would be on top of the house.
• The second rule for using prepositions is that prepositions are generally followed by nouns or pronouns. There was a time in the past when teachers held strictly to this rule, but it made for some clunky sentences. I am seeking someone I can depend on ends with the preposition on, so people who insisted that sentences shouldn’t end with a preposition would be forced to use convoluted and unnatural phrasing. To avoid ending that sentence above with a preposition, you’d have to say, someone I can depend on is whom I am seeking.
• There are more than 100 prepositions in the English language. In addition, there are endless possibilities for creating  prepositional phrases, phrases that begin with a preposition and end with a noun or pronoun.  In the following sections, you will find examples of prepositions, types of prepositions, a comprehensive list of prepositions, and some helpful preposition exercises. As you read the examples and study the list, remember that prepositions usually convey concepts such as comparison, direction, place, purpose, source possession, and time.

Examples of Prepositions

In the following sentences, examples of prepositions have been italicized. As you read, consider how using different prepositions or even different types of prepositions in place of the examples might change the relationship between the rest of the words in the sentence.

• I prefer to read in the library.
• He climbed up the ladder to get onto the roof.
• Please sign your name on the dotted line after you read the contract.
• Go down the stairs and through the door.
• He swam across the pool.
• Take your brother with you.

Types of Prepositions

There are three types of prepositions, including time prepositions, place prepositions, and direction prepositions.
Time prepositions are those such as before, after, during, and until; place prepositions are those indicating position, such as around, between, and against; and direction prepositions are those indicative of direction, such as across, up, and down. Each type of preposition is important.

Type of Prepositions

Prepositions of Time
Basic examples of time prepositions include: at, on, in, before and after. They are used to help indicate when something happened, happens or will happen. It can get a little confusing though, as many different prepositions can be used.

Prepositions of time examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

For example:

• I was born on July 4th, 1982.
• I was born in 1982.
• I was born at exactly 2am.
• I was born two minutes before my twin brother.
• I was born after the Great War ended.

The above makes it seem quite difficult, with five different prepositions used to indicate when something happened. However, there is a set of guidelines that can help decide which preposition to use:

For years, months, seasons, centuries and times of day, use the preposition in:

• I first met John in 1987.
• It’s always cold in January
• Easter falls in spring each year.
• The Second World War occurred in the 20th century.
• We eat breakfast in the morning.

For days, dates and specific holiday days, use the preposition on.

1. We go to school on Mondays, but not on Sunday
2. Christmas is on December 25th.
3. Buy me a present on my birthday.

For times, indicators of exception and festivals, use the preposition at:

• Families often argue at Christmas time.
• I work faster at night.
• Her shift finished at 7pm.

Before and after should be much easier to understand than the other examples of prepositions of time. Both are used to explain when something happened, happens or will happen, but specifically in relation to another thing.

• Before I discovered this bar, I used to go straight home after work.
• We will not leave before 3pm.
• David comes before Bryan in the line, but after Louise.

Other prepositions of time could include: During, about, around, until and throughout.

• The concert will be staged throughout the month of May.
• I learned how to ski during the holidays.
• He usually arrives around 3pm.
• It was about six in the morning when we made it to bed.
• The store is open until midnight.

Prepositions of Place

To confuse matters a bit, the most common prepositions to indicate time – on, at, in – are also the most common prepositions to indicate position. However, the rules are a little clearer as place prepositions are a more rigid concept than time prepositions.

Prepositions of place examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

• The cat is on the table.
• The dogs are in the kennel.
• We can meet at the crossroads.

The guidelines can be broken down as follows:

On is used when referring to something with a surface:

• The sculpture hangs on the wall.
• The images are on the page.
• The specials are on the menu, which is on the table.

In is used when referring to something that is inside or within confined boundaries. This could be anything, even a country:

1. Jim is in France, visiting his aunt in the hospital.
2. The whiskey is in the jar in the fridge.
3. The girls play in the garden.

At is used when referring to something at a specific point:

1. The boys are at the entrance at the movie theater.
2. He stood at the bus stop at the corner of Water and High streets.
3. We will meet at the airport.

Lot’s of other prepositions of place, such as under, over, inside, outside, above and below are used in English. There is, however, a lot less confusion as they refer to rigid positions rather than abstract ones.

• The cat is under the table.
• Put the sandwich over there.
• The key is locked inside the car.
• They stepped outside the house.
• Major is ranked above corporal.
• He is waving at you from below the stairs.

Prepositions of Movement

Prepositions of movement are quite easy to understand as they are less abstract than prepositions of place and time. Essentially, they describe how something or someone moves from one place to another. The most commonly used preposition of movement is to, which usually serves to highlight that there is movement towards a specific destination.

Prepositions of movement examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy identification.

• He has gone on vacation to France.
• She went to the bowling alley every Friday last summer.
• I will go to bed when I am tired.
• They will go to the zoo if they finish their errands.

Other more specific prepositions of movement include: through, across, off, down and into. These prepositions can sometimes get mixed up with others. While they are similar, they have individual meanings that add context to the movement.

Across refers to moving from one side to another.

• Mike travelled across America on his motorcycle.
• Rebecca and Judi are swimming across the lake.

Through refers to moving directly inside something and out the other end.

• The bullet Ben shot went through the window.
• The train passes through the tunnel.

Into refers to entering or looking inside something.

• James went into the room.
• They stare into the darkness.

Up, over, down, past and around indicate directions of movement:

1. Jack went up the hill.
2. Jill came tumbling down after.
3. We will travel over rough terrain on our way to Grandma’s house.
4. The horse runs around the track all morning.
5. A car zoomed past a truck on the highway

 

How to Recognize a Preposition?

Recognizing prepositions can be challenging as they do not always follow a consistent pattern in terms of their position in a sentence, nor do they have a discernible structure or spelling. We do know, however, that prepositions are almost always short words, with the majority having less than six letters. One technique people use to identify a preposition is to think of a preposition as anywhere a mouse can go. Above, below, next to, between, beyond, through, by, with…It won’t cover them all, but it can be a useful question to ask when trying to identify and recognize a preposition. While there are over 100 prepositions, there are around 500,00-700,000 nouns in English! It is unlikely anyone will learn so many nouns, but recognizing and then mastering prepositions might be a worthwhile and attainable goal.

Prepositions with Nouns

There are lots of different nouns that carry specific prepositions to consolidate their meaning. These are called dependent prepositions. Again, there isn’t a set rule that says a particular type of noun will take a dependent preposition, although they normally follow the noun. Moreover, there are many possible combinations. Essentially, it’s case of familiarizing yourself with the different possibilities of nouns and dependent prepositions. Examples:

• He displayed cruelty towards his dog.
• She had knowledge of physics.
• The trouble with Jack.
• 21 is the age at which you are allowed to drink.
• Bolt made another attempt at the world record.
• The police held an inquiry into the murder.

Prepositions with Verbs

Prepositional verbs – the phrasal combinations of verbs and prepositions – are important parts of speech. The prepositions again act as links between the verb and noun or gerund, giving extra meaning to the sentence. The prepositions most commonly used with verbs are: to, for, about, of, in, at and from. The good news is that these will always come after the verb in the sentence. However, it should also be noted that the prepositional verbs can have slightly different meaning compared to the original verb. For example, to relate a story simply means to tell a story, to relate to a story means you identify with it, find some personally meaning in that story.

Verb + to:

• He admitted to the charge.
• I go to Vancouver on vacation twice a year.
• William can relate to the character in the play.

Verb + for:

• He must apologize for his actions.
• We searched for ages before we found the perfect apartment.
• I provide for my family by working two jobs.

Verb + with:

• I don’t agree with your claim.
• The lawyer said he will meet with your representatives.
• They began with a quick warm-up.

Verb + of:

• I dream of a better life.
• Have you heard of Shakespeare?
• The bread consists of dough, raisins and a little honey.

Verb + in:

• Does Rick believe in miracles?
• Fallon lives in New York.
• The bus accident resulted in my being late to work.

Verb + at

1. We arrived at our destination.
2. Ilene excels at singing.
3. Will the baby smile at her mother?

Verb + on:

• We should really concentrate on our studies now.
• Helen insisted on Brenda’s company.
• Morris experimented on some canvas.

Verb + from:

• Since turning 80, she suffers from lapses in concentration.
• Dad retired from the navy in the 1970s.
• Billy Bob, please refrain from doing that.

 

Prepositions with Adjectives

Prepositions can form phrases with adjectives to give further context to the action, emotion or thing the adjective is describing. Like verbs and nouns, adjectives can be followed by: to, about, In, for, with, at and by.

• I am happily married to David.
• Ellie is crazy about this movie.
• Michelle is interested in politics.
• We are sorry for your loss.
• Jane will be delighted with her results.
• Is he still angry at the world?
• The entire room was astonished by the election results.

There can sometimes be a pattern in deciding which prepositions go with adjectives, for example, when adjectives have the same or very similar meaning to each other, they might take the same preposition:

• Frightened of, afraid of, scared of, terrified of

Indeed, when adjectives have opposite meaning they might also take the same preposition:

• Good at, great at, superb at, wonderful at
• Bad at, terrible at, woeful at, inept at

There are always many exceptions to the above, but it can help that there seems to be some

consistency when adjectives have the same meaning or opposite meaning.

 

Nevertheless, perhaps a more general rule is that English speakers simply need to learn which prepositions go with which adjectives, as meaning can change significantly by using a different preposition.

• I am good at sports means I have some athletic talent.
• The nurse was good to my mother means she took care of her and was nice, kind, and helpful.
• I am good with animals means I get along with them and handle them well.
• Swimming is good for your health.
• That was good of you to come means you were begin nice and good to visit.
• My little brother is good inside (his body) means even though you can’t see how he thinks and feels, he is good. Even if his behavior is bad.
• The blueberry jam will be good on toast. 

Prepositions Exercises

The following exercises will help you gain greater understanding about how prepositions work. Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.
1. The bone was _______ the dog.
a. About
b. For
c. After
d. Considering

Answer: b. The bone was for the dog.

2. We are going on vacation _______ August.
a. On
b. At
c. In
d. Since

Answer: c. We are going on vacation in August.

3. Please put the vase ________ the table.
a. In
b. On
c. For
d. Over

Answer: b. Please put the vase on the table.
4. I received a present ________ Janet.
a. From
b. Of
c. By
d. About

Answer: a. I received a present from Janet.
5. School begins ________ Monday.
a. In
b. On
c. From
d. Since

Answer: b. School begins on Monday.

 

List of Prepositions

While there are only about 150 prepositions in the English language, these words are among the most important. Without them, the sentences we speak, read, and write would be difficult to understand. The following list of prepositions is not a complete one, however it is among the most comprehensive lists of prepositions available anywhere.

Aboard

About

Above

Absent

Across

After

Against

Along

Alongside

Amid

Among

Amongst

Anti

Around

As

At

Before

Behind

Below

Beneath

Beside

Besides

Between

Beyond

But

By

Circa

Concerning

Considering

Despite

Down

During

Except

Excepting

Excluding

Failing

Following

For

From

Given

In

Inside

Into

Like

Minus

Near

Of

Off

On

Onto

Opposite

Outside

Over

Past

Per

Plus

Regarding

Round

Save

Since

Than

Through

To

Toward

Towards

Under

Underneath

Unlike

Until

Up

Upon

Versus

Via

With

Within

Without

Worth

Conjunctions

What is a conjunction?

A conjunction is a part of speech that is used to connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. Conjunctions are considered to be invariable grammar particle, and they may or may not stand between items they conjoin.

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Types of Conjunctions

There are several different types of conjunctions that do various jobs within sentence structures. These include:

• Subordinating conjunctions –  Also known as subordinators, these conjunctions join dependent clauses to independent clauses.
• Coordinating conjunction – Also known as coordinators, these conjunctions coordinate or join two or more sentences, main clauses, words, or other parts of speech which are of the same syntactic importance.
• Correlative conjunction – These conjunctions correlate, working in pairs to join phrases or words that carry equal importance within a sentence.
• Conjunctive adverbs – While some instructors do not teach conjunctive adverbs alongside conjunctions, these important parts of speech are worth a mention here. These adverbs always connect one clause to another, and are used to show sequence, contrast, cause and effect, and other relationships.

When people first learn to write, they usually begin with short, basic sentences like these: “My name is Ted. I am a boy. I like dogs.” One of the most important jobs conjunctions do is to connect these short sentences so they sound more like this: “I am a boy named Ted, and I like dogs.”

Conjunction Rules

There are a few important rules for using conjunctions. Remember them and you will find that your writing flows better:

• Conjunctions are for connecting thoughts, actions, and ideas as well as nouns, clauses, and other parts of speech. For example: Mary went to the supermarket and bought oranges.
• Conjunctions are useful for making lists. For example: We made pancakes, eggs, and coffee for breakfast.
• When using conjunctions, make sure that all the parts of your sentences agree. For example: “I work busily yet am careful” does not agree. “I work busily yet carefully” shows agreement.

Conjunctions List

There are only a few common conjunctions, yet these words perform many functions: They present explanations, ideas, exceptions, consequences, and contrasts. Here is a list of conjunctions commonly used in American English:

• And
• As
• Because
• But
• For
• Just as
• Or
• Neither
• Nor
• Not only
• So
• Whether
• Yet

Examples of Conjunctions

In the following examples, the conjunctions are in bold for easy recognition:

• I tried to hit the nail but hit my thumb instead.
• I have two goldfish and a cat.
• I’d like a bike for commuting to work.
• You can have peach ice cream or a brownie sundae.
• Neither the black dress northe gray one looks right on me.
• My dad always worked hard so we could afford the things we wanted.
• I try very hard in school yet I am not receiving good grades.

Conjunction Exercises

The following exercises will help you gain greater understanding about how conjunctions work. Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.

1. My brother loves animals. He just brought a puppy __________ a kitten home with him.
   1. But
   2. Or
   3. Yet
   4. And

Answer: 4. My brother loves animals. He just brought a puppy and a kitten home with him.

2. I’d like to thank you ______ the lovely gift.
   1. Or
   2. For
   3. And
   4. Yet

Answer: 2. I’d like to thank you for the lovely gift.

3. I want to go for a hike _____ I have to go to work today.
   1. But
   2. Yet
   3. Or
   4. For

Answer: 1. I want to go for a hike but I have to go to work today.

4. They do not smoke, _____ do they play cards.
   1. And
   2. Or
   3. Nor
   4. Yet

Answer: 3. They do not smoke, nor do they play cards.

5. I’m getting good grades _________ I study every day.
   1. Or
   2. Yet
   3. But
   4. Because

Answer: 4. I’m getting good grades because I study every day.

Definition and Examples of Interjections in English

The words or phrases forcefully convey emotions

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The Main Parts of Speech

• • Parts of Speech
  • Nouns
  • Pronouns
  • Verbs
  • Adjectives
  • Adverbs
  • Prepositions
  • Conjunctions
  • Interjections

 The interjection brr means "It's cold" or "I'm cold.". (Liam Bailey/Getty Images)

By 

Richard Nordquist

Updated May 30, 2019

An interjection, also known as an ejaculation or an exclamation, is a word, phrase, or sound used to convey an emotion such as surprise, excitement, happiness, or anger. Put another way, an interjection is a short utterance that usually expresses emotion and is capable of standing alone.

Though interjections are one of the traditional parts of speech, they are grammatically unrelated to any other part of a sentence. Interjections are very common in spoken English, but they appear in written English as well. The most widely used interjections in English include hey, oops, ouch, gee, oh, ah, ooh, eh, ugh, aw, yo, wow, brr, sh, and yippee. In writing, an interjection is typically followed by an exclamation point, but it can also be followed by a comma if it is part of a sentence. Knowing the different kinds of interjections, and understanding how to punctuate them, will help you use them correctly.

First Words

Interjections (such as oh and wow) are among the first words human beings learn as children—usually by the age of 1.5 years. Eventually, children pick up several hundred of these brief, often exclamatory utterances. As the 18th-century philologist Rowland Jones observed, "It appears that interjections make up a considerable part of our language." Nevertheless, interjections are commonly regarded as the outlaws of English grammar. The term itself, derived from Latin, means "something thrown in between."

Interjections usually stand apart from normal sentences, defiantly maintaining their syntactic independence. (Yeah!) They aren't marked inflectionally for grammatical categories such as tense or number. (No sirree!) And because they show up more frequently in spoken English than in writing, most scholars have chosen to ignore them.

With the advent of corpus linguistics and conversation analysis, interjections have recently begun to attract serious attention. Linguists and grammarians have even segregated interjections into different categories.

Primary and Secondary

It's now customary to divide interjections into two broad classes:

Primary interjections are single words (such as ah, brr, eww, hmm,  ooh, and yowza) that are not derived from any other word class, are used only as interjections, and don't enter into syntactic constructions. According to linguist Martina Drescher, in her article "The Expressive Function of Language: Towards a Cognitive Semantic Approach," which was published in "The Language of Emotions: Conceptualization, Expression, and Theoretical Foundation," primary interjections generally serve to "lubricate" conversations in a ritualized manner.

Secondary interjections (such as bless you, congratulations, good grief, hey, hi, oh my, oh my God, oh well, rats, and shoot) also belong to other word classes. These expressions are often exclamatory and tend to mix with oaths, swear words, and greeting formulas. Drescher describes secondary interjections as "derivative uses of other words or locutions, which have lost their original conceptual meanings"—a process known as semantic bleaching.

As written English grows more colloquial, both classes have migrated from speech into print.

Punctuation

As noted, interjections are more commonly used in speech, but you might also find yourself using these parts of speech in writing as well. "The Farlex Complete English Grammar Rules" gives these examples:

• Ooh, that's a beautiful dress.
• Brr, it's freezing in here!
• Oh my God! We've won!

Note how punctuating both primary and secondary interjections in writing depends entirely on the context in which they are used. In the first example above, the term ooh is technically a primary interjection that generally does not enter into syntactic constructions. It often stands alone, and when it does, the word is generally followed by an exclamation point, as in Ohh! Indeed, you could reconstruct the sentence so that the primary interjection stands alone, followed by an explanatory sentence, as in:

• Ohh! That's a beautiful dress.

In the second sentence, the primary interjection brr is followed by a comma. The exclamation point, then, does not come until the end of the connected sentence. But again, the primary interjection could stand alone—and be followed by an exclamation point—as in:

• Brr! It's cold in here.

The third example contains a secondary interjection Oh my God that stands apart from the second sentence, with the interjection and sentence both ending in exclamation points. You can also use secondary interjections as integral parts of sentences:

• Hey, why did you let the dog in here?
• Oh my, I knew I should have turned off the oven!
• Good grief Charlie Brown! Just kick the football.

Of course, the creator of the "Peanuts" cartoons would have likely used the secondary interjection more like a primary interjection. Indeed, a biography of the famed illustrator uses the phrase in just that way:

• Good Grief! The Story of Charles M. Schulz

Since interjections depend so heavily on how they are used in speech, the punctuation they take varies greatly, according to context, but they are usually followed by an exclamation point when standing alone or a comma when introducing a sentence.